Australian Evangelical Alliance

A question for theology and education in a secular society

Brian Edgar

Director of Public Theology,

The Australian Evangelical Alliance

1. Introduction

1.1 The current debate reveals a high degree of confusion about intelligent design

The current controversy about Intelligent Design was created when it was widely reported that the

Federal Education Minister, Dr Brendan Nelson, had given qualified backing to the teaching of

‘intelligent design’ (ID) in schools. The reactions revealed a fairly high degree of confusion in the

wider public about a range of matters. Not surprisingly it showed that there is –

 · a lack of theological understanding about what intelligent design actually is and what it

achieves,

 · public uncertainty about what it means for Australian public education to be ‘secular’

 · confusion about what is means to be ‘scientific’ and the relationship of science to other

disciplines

 · a general difficulty in understanding the nature of Australian Christianity in general, and

evangelicalism in particular, when compared and contrasted with North America.

Dr Nelson told the National Press Club that he had met Campus Crusade for Christ and watched the

DVD presentation, called Unlocking the Mystery of Life. He said that he would oppose replacing

evolution with ID in Australia’s science classes but said parents should be able to choose that their

children learn about it. David Wroe, of The Age (August 11, 2005) reported Dr Nelson, a medical

doctor and a Christian, as saying, ‘Do I think it should be a replacement for teaching the origins of

mankind in a scientific sense? I most certainly don’t think that it should be at all. In fact, I’d be quite

concerned if it were to replace it… Do I think that parents and schools should have the opportunity

— if they wish to — for students also to be exposed to this and to be taught about it? Yes I think

that’s fine,” he said. ‘As far as I’m concerned, students can be taught and should be taught the basic

science in terms of the evolution of man, but if schools also want to present students with intelligent

design, I don’t have any difficulty with that. It’s about choice, reasonable choice.’

1.2 This paper aims to clarify a number of issues

The following discussion deals with three dimensions of the one issue and attempts to clarify the

issues in a way that is probably impossible in the popular media where there are so many voices

with quite different assumptions and intentions.

1. Biblical and theological issues associated with intelligent design

2. Implications for social level – nature of faith/religion in public education in ‘secular’

Australia

3. What it means at a political level

Should ID be taught in schools.doc – Page 2

2. Biblical and theological issues

2.1 The first area of confusion simply revolves around what ‘intelligent design’ actually is.

2.1.1 Many people hold to a very general understanding of intelligent design.

A general understanding operates along the lines that certain aspects of the universe, especially

living things, exhibit all the characteristics of something that has been designed by some

intelligence. And for many people it makes sense for this intelligent designer to be known as ‘God’.

There is absolutely nothing new about the general form of this argument. Forms of it have been

around since Aristotle and the Greek philosophers and it is found in traditional Islamic and Jewish

as well as Christian theology. Many Christians would see reference to it in Paul’s letter to the

Romans when he justifies God’s condemnation of the unrighteous because ‘what may be known

about God is plain to them. For since the creation of the world God’s invisible qualities – his eternal

power and divine nature – have been clearly seen, being understood from what has been made, so

that men are without any excuse.’ (1:19-20).

Historically, Christian theologians such as Thomas Aquinas have developed arguments based on the

idea of apparent design and order in the world. Aquinas offered five versions of intelligent design

arguments, although it is probably fair to say that the first four are really different forms of the same

argument. Often known as the Cosmological argument it suggests that because nothing comes to be

with out a cause that one can trace back all events via a chain of causes until one comes to, by

definition, the first cause. This first cause is necessarily without cause (otherwise it wouldn’t be the

first one) and is to be identified with God. It suffers seriously from the assumptions it involves

(why, for instance could there not be an infinite chain of causes?) and the jump from a first cause to

the notion of God.

The fifth of Aquinas’s arguments, the so-called Teleological, argument is really a development of

the cosmological argument and it has more credence with many people. It argues that the world

reveals order, purpose, intelligence and design which implies the existence of some intelligent, even

moral creator. ‘We see that things … act for an end … it is plain that they achieve their end, not

fortuitously, but designedly. Now whatever lacks knowledge cannot move towards an end …

therefore some intelligent being exists by whom all natural things are directed to their end; and this

being we call God.’ Also associated with this argument is William Paley (1743-1805) whose form

of the argument, often known as ‘Paley’s Watch’ is noteworthy. He suggested that anyone finding a

watch who did not previously know of the existence of such a thing would, after close investigation

of it, inevitably conclude that it was an object that had been designed and that somewhere there was

a designer. He argued that the same should be concluded about the world and that this designer is

God.

So, for many other people ID is a reference to a fairly general notion that the world looks as though

it was designed by God and that this really makes one think. For other people however, it is

something much more precise.

2.1.2 There is a very specific form of ID, especially for those who are aware of recent debates and

controversies in the USA.

This form of ID is a cluster of ideas related to the work of theorists such as Phillip Johnson,

Michael Behe, William Dembski and organisations such as the Center for Science and Culture.

Intellectually, these ideas include, but are not restricted to, specific arguments concerning

irreducible complexity (IC) as an alternative to evolutionary theory (ET), the anthropic principle

(AP), specified complexity (SC) and God as the intelligent designer (ID). It is useful to understand

the detail of these arguments but at this point it is sufficient to note that ‘intelligent design’ in this

Should ID be taught in schools.doc – Page 3

context is actually a cluster of scientific, philosophical and theological ideas and concepts that have

been brought together but which can often operate separately.

Those familiar with the history of design arguments, which have long been an essential part of

courses in theology and the philosophy of religion, are likely to be a little surprised at the way some

people treat the present resurgence of the design argument as though it was a complete novelty. The

theorists presenting it, of course, certainly know the history of the argument and there are some new

features in the recent discussions (some of them perhaps unwelcome) which give rise to new

aspects for debate. The polarisation of the debate in the USA, and, to some extent as imported into

Australia, has produced arguments for and against which are simply too extreme. Part of the

problem lies in the way ID arguments are often interpreted in our modernist, rationalist, ‘scientific’

and very secular context. This has led to many mis-understandings of what design arguments can

achieve and what they are actually intended to do. It is unhelpful to assume that all forms of the

argument are the same, or, for instance, that are all intended to be a ‘scientific proof’ of anything.

The various components of the arguments about ID, IC, AP and so forth have become the focus of

vigorous debate in the US and, despite what some people think, it is not a two sided debate in which

theists argue in favour of these arguments and atheists or secularists oppose them. It is much more

complex that that. Many Christian scientists and theologians argue that some or all of the

components of the program put forward as ID are defective and even potentially dangerous to either

(or both) good theology or good science and sometimes atheists weigh in on the side of ID theorists.

The only substantial difference for them is that God is not the intelligent designer but some alien

life that is more advanced in its interaction with other parts of the universe than humanity is at this

point in time.

2.2 Generally, intelligent design arguments are subject to criticism, but some forms of it still have

value.

Now it is well known that the general ID argument is subject to question and criticism. Difficult

questions for ID include: Does evidence of design prove the existence of a designer? Can design

emerge within a system without an external designer? How does this account of the universe

account for apparent flaws in the design: why is there suffering and pain in the world? If there is a

designer can one conclude that this is God? And if so, what kind of God? Does it prove anything

about God’s nature, name or character? Is the attempt to ‘prove’ God contrary to the Christian

notion of faith? Is there, in fact, any theological value in the notion of a God who can be proved by

rational means?

However, although the general consensus is that the argument does not stand either logically or

theologically as a ‘proof’ of God, this argument and a number of other arguments which seek to

prove and disprove God, will not die. They continue to be discussed in theology and philosophy of

religion classes. And for very good reason. It should be noted that the question ‘should intelligent

design be taught in schools’ has already been answered in that it already does exist, very

appropriately, in secondary school philosophy courses. The problem is that philosophy is such an

undervalued subject that few people take it. This relates to the modernist division of disciplines, but

more on that later.

The failure of the teleological argument to achieve the goal of proving God does not mean that it is,

as some would then suggest, without value. It can be used to raise questions in the mind of those

who do not believe in God or a designer who can reasonably asked whether their explanation is

more reasonable. Apart from anything else it is apparent that the apostle Paul was prepared to use

one form of it. In fact, it can be argued that the attempt to see it as a definitive proof is misplaced

and that it ought to be seen, as some of its proponents have insisted, not as a definitive proof but as

a rational explanation of what is believed on other grounds. And there is nothing in principle wrong

Should ID be taught in schools.doc – Page 4

with this as human beings often act on other than on the basis of previously considered and

demonstrably rational grounds. A rational argument for acting in a particular way may subsequently

be offered without anyone requiring that such a reason be completely thought out beforehand and

without it being a comprehensive demonstration that it was the only action that should reasonably

have been taken. The expression ‘faith in search of understanding’ is often associated with those

notable Christian writers and defenders of the faith, Augustine of Hippo and Anselm of Canterbury,

who both considered design arguments at length. Altogether, it is quite reasonable to understand

faith in God as being supported, but not proved, by rational argument.

ID arguments also fulfil a useful function in the modern context in that they present a challenge to

the assumption that scientific explanations are all that is needed to explain the world. There are

those who want to keep ID out of the science class-room because they do not believe in any

religious realm at all. They usually (though not always) are confused about the nature of causation

and think that a purely physical explanation is sufficient to provide a basis for meaning, life, ethics

and so on. They often do not realise that invoking evolution or chance as an ultimate cause and as a

completely sufficient explanation which negates the need for God is actually as much as ‘religious’

position as the claim that God is an intelligent designer. In other words they are keen on removing

one particular religious position form the class-room while (often unconsciously but sometimes

deliberately) promoting another. The belief that God is not needed as an explanation is a matter of

‘faith’ as much as the view that God is needed.

There are also those who want to keep ID out of the classroom because although they are believers

their conviction is that these two different realms of thought need to be kept separate. One realm is

scientific, which deals with matters of the physical world, and the other is the spiritual which deals

with matters of faith and ethics and so forth. They integrate these realms in their personal lives and

have no problem seeing, for example, faith as dealing with ‘why’ and science with ‘how’. But these

distinctions are reflected in the way they see science as quite separate from faith in, for example,

school curricula. While this is an advance on the former position in that it recognises the reality of

the spiritual world it is far from adequate and the overall effect of this position over a long period of

time has not been entirely helpful.

Firstly, it allows the confusion of causes which many have to continue and does nothing to help

people come to a clearer understanding of the situation with regard to the often unconscious

confusion of scientific explanations with ontological ones. Secondly, it ignores the fact that the

areas can and should be more integrated more as the world moves into an increasingly post-modern

context. The world is changing and greater levels of integration of areas of knowledge are essential.

The process of integration is difficult but it cannot be ignored. It is taking place in a number of areas

and in each case it produces tensions. But those who think that the post-Enlightenment, modernist,

secular form of education which separates or even excludes values, meanings and God-talk from

education and implicitly devalues ‘non-scientific’ approaches is not helpful or adequate. We need

to find a better way.

In addition to those who want to keep God-talk completely out of the class-room there are those

who want to be able to engage in such talk but who simply think that the current ID movement is

neither good theology nor good science. The deficiencies of the latest form of ID must be explored.

2.3 Certain specific components of design arguments have insurmountable difficulties

It is only since the early 1990’s that a more refined and precise set of arguments have come to be

known in some quarters as ‘Intelligent Design’. It has some distinctive arguments relating to

irreducible complexity and sometimes the anthropic principle. For some people if you don’t have

irreducible complexity then you don’t have ID. In fact, it is very likely that a good number of

people (though not the ID theorists themselves) who are unaware of the longer history of intelligent

Should ID be taught in schools.doc – Page 5

design arguments think that irreducible complexity (IC) and the work of Behe, Johnson and

Dembski is all that there is to intelligent design. That is a problem when people wish to reject

aspects of IC.

The IC argument suggests that evolution through mutation and natural selection cannot work in all

situations via the gradual steps usually postulated by evolutionary theory because none of the

component parts which develop prior to the formation of the final entity would be functional or

advantageous until the entire system is in place. Therefore there would be no natural selection

favouring those prior forms and their selection would be unlikely. There is some difference of

opinion on precisely what the argument proves. The strong claim, usually associated with its

original proponents, comes in two parts: (a) that it disproves evolution by being an alternative

explanation and (b) that it therefore proves that a designer (ie God)

exists. A weaker form of the

argument is that it does not prove that God exists but that some designer exists (maybe alien life) or

perhaps simply that it challenges the opposite, and equally unverifiable assumption held by some

(but by no means all evolutionary theorists) that everything in life can be explained by a naturalistic

form of science which excludes God and all transcendent meaning and purpose.

So far the specific examples used to demonstrate IC and the alleged difficulty of explaining why

intermediate forms would be selected have completely failed to persuade the scientific community.

No properly refereed scientific journal has an article which purports to demonstrate such a situation.

This has led to accusations of scientific prejudice and bias in favour of naturalistic models but such

a claim is difficult to sustain given the number of scientists that are actually believers.

Not only has IC failed to persuade the scientific community but it has produced a strong reaction

from those who argue that it is dangerous if the idea of a designer is, by itself, a sufficient

explanation for the existence of an entity and that further scientific research is unnecessary once a

designer is postulated. Any such suggestion (and it is not one advanced by all theorists) should be

rejected. It is an unscientific approach to examining the natural world which inhibits proper

research. There is a sense in which scientific research must be ‘methodologically atheist’. That is, in

those areas accessible to scientific research the notion of God cannot become an alternative

explanation to a scientific one. For example, it would be inappropriate to describe in scientific detail

the processes involved in clouds becoming rain, and then the processes involved in the subsequent

formation of streams and rivers moving to the sea, and then, in the absence of a full scientific

understanding of evaporative processes to say simply that water becomes cloud again by the action

of God. If that is taken as a satisfactory alternative to an understanding of evaporation and cloud

formation it would not only inhibit further scientific research into the actual processes but it would

suggest that God is involved in only some activities (the movement of water to cloud) but not in the

rest of the processes of rain and the formation of water tables and so forth.

The same principles apply in the more controversial area of the origin of living entities. The action

of God, the ultimate cause, should not be confused with intermediate causes of a physical nature.

When the action of God is used to fill in for scientific processes this usually known as a God-of-thegaps

approach. God only fills in the gaps where scientific understanding is limited. The result in

such a situation is that when the scientific processes are actually discovered there appears to be no

place for God at all. It is a scientifically inappropriate approach and a theologically deficient view

of God. Thus it is a matter of some concern when the more recent proponents of ID and IC either

directly advocate or suggest that scientific explanations are be alternatives to theological ones.

Interestingly, those who stand at the opposite ends of the spectrum on the matter of creation and

evolution frequently make the same mistake. There is a form of scientific imperialism which

believes that proving evolutionary theory disproves the existence of God, as well as a theological

imperialism which does the reverse. Both are equally fallacious.

Should ID be taught in schools.doc – Page 6

3. Social and educational issues

3.1 Simple ‘yes’ and ‘no’ answers to the question ‘should ID be taught in school’ are often

unhelpful.

When considering an educational program one not only has to take into account the nature of the ID

argument that is being talked about one has to take into account the level being considered, the

manner of teaching and the class in which it takes place. Is one talking about primary school or a

VCE subject? The way a subject is to be taught is critical. Is it presented as an unchallenged ‘fact?

or as a debatable point of view? And the class in which it belongs is important. Is it science,

philosophy or religion? At this point the options themselves may be inadequate.

Some of the more recent advocates of IC have been emphatic that ID is science and there has been a

move to have it included in science classes, especially in America. Others have sharply objected on

the grounds that IC is intrinsically ‘unscientific’ in approach. There is no doubt that the

methodological error of equating God with a specific cause (rather than as the fundamental cause of

all things) and any suggestion that scientific research is negated by reference to a designer are to be

avoided. They are mistakes and should be treated as such.

Saying ‘no’ to certain aspects of some forms of intelligent design argument should not be construed

as the rejection of all aspects and forms of design arguments. Intelligent design arguments usually

compose a blend of argument and ideas which can be characterised as scientific, philosophical and

theological. What is actually needed is a more integrated system of education than we generally

have at present. In the debate some people use the question ‘Is it scientific?’ as though everything

that is not ‘scientific’ has no value. But many things are taught that are not scientific. Is art

scientific? What about literature and economics?

At this point we need to note the non-religious nature of education in the Australian context.

Education is to be ‘free, compulsory and secular’. Classic scientific, secular modernism prefers the

clear demarcation of areas of study, referred to above, as the power of scientific analysis is

enhanced by specialisation. The separation of areas is particularly pronounced when it comes to

theological matters. The system separates disciplines in general but particularly separates religion

and ethics from other areas of study. Values of all kinds, including and religion and ethics have

been traditionally been treated scantily and usually separately from other fields of study. The reintroduction

of specific systems of values into educational programs which is taking place at the

present is very positive but they tend to be very ‘personal’ values and do not deal with the issues

raised within other areas of study. These modest changes have not yet overcome the fundamental,

long-standing separation of values from the other disciplines. When it comes to relating theology

and values to specific areas – whether science, economics, business, geography, history or art there

is a long way to go. As it generally stands at the moment those engaged in science or the study of

science either try to integrate ethics and faith through their own personal endeavours or not at all.

With some notable exceptions, formal, corporate reflection on such matters has usually been

neglected.

But social changes are occurring, though the process is complex. In the educational realm

interdisciplinary studies and integration and religious studies are becoming more acceptable, while

at the same time on the other hand there are those working very hard to ensure that the various areas

(such as science and theology) are kept apart. The issues there are a reflection of the more general

trends which are taking place in community debates. The general notion of what is meant in a

secular society is under discussion. Some are concerned about what they see as the illegitimate

intrusion of religious issues into the public arena and, in response, are pushing for a harder form of

secularism which excludes all religious thought and reflection from the public arena. Recent calls

Should ID be taught in schools.doc – Page 7

for Muslim headscarves to be banned indicate a hardening attitude. It indicates the presence of more

extreme attitudes towards what is acceptable in the community. It is a shift away from the more

tolerant positions of the past. It is possible that the present ID debate will become polarised and less

helpful than it should be.

3.2 The nature of a ‘soft’ secular society

It is important that Australian retain and perhaps even extends a softer form of secularism which

preserves the best elements of a liberal, democratic, politically secular society. This is the view that

does not try to exclude religious viewpoints from the public arena but which does refuse to

preference one above another, or even preference no religion ahead of religion, and which does not

assume that the majority can dominate the minority but which allows a comprehensive freedom of

religion. In such a context the presentation and discussion of credible worldviews including

Christian, Islamic and Jewish as well as Secularist takes place. They are discussed and debated.

This kind of examination of values and worldviews necessarily includes issues such as belief in

God. This is a very legitimate and necessary component of a secular education. Any education

which excludes such views will inevitably have deficient understanding of the world.

Consequently, education about the origin of all things – living beings and the universe as a whole –

should present the main historical, cultural and religious points of view. This may not all take place

be in a science class but nor should it be completely excluded from science classes. Those that have

been educated in a system that comprehensively isolates faith and science may find this difficult but

the perpetuation of the problems of the past is not appropriate either. The examination of

worldviews, including theistic ones (Christian, Islamic, as well as secular and scientific) is a

legitimate enterprise.

A lot of work is involved in working through the detail of this. Having an open, liberal educational

system which deals with theological and religious worldviews is not an excuse for the teaching of

(though it perhaps allows for the teaching about) views that are inherently flawed. It is at this point

that recognising the context of the North American debate is significant. There are at least three

distinctions that must be made. The first relates to the specific form of strongly advocated IC (as

distinct from ID) arguments, the second relates to the alleged connection between ID and political

conservatism and the third deals with the different nature of the North American educational

system.

Firstly, as noted before, not all aspects of ID are defensible. For some advocates of design

arguments at the moment one does not have ID without IC and IC is irrevocably opposed to

evolutionary theory. The scientific, logical and theological problems inherent in this view should be

recognised and it should not be introduced on the basis that it is the Christian or even evangelical

point of view. The idea that evolutionary theory cannot explain certain complex systems has not

been demonstrated scientifically. Logically the notion that one has to choose between an ultimate

designer and a scientifically examinable process is not necessary. And the notion that IC or antievolutionary

perspectives are intrinsically part of a Christian or evangelical world-view is not

sustainable.

Secondly, the alleged connection of IC and ID with politically right wing, neo-conservative

movements in the North American church should not be allowed to influence the debate in

Australia. Firstly, Australian Christians should not allow any such connection to influence them in

such a way that they think that being ‘right’ is being more faithful than being ‘left’. Any such

connections have, traditionally in Australia been far more peripheral to faith than they presently

appear to be in the USA. Moreover, in the USA the nature of church – state relationships is different

to Australia. Despite the higher level of traditional, Christian religiosity in the North American

community as a whole, the formal policy of the separation of church and state has been sharper and

Should ID be taught in schools.doc – Page 8

more distinct than in Australia. The positions have tended to be more polarised in the USA.

Although people are free to adopt whatever political position they like it is probably not helpful to

automatically adopt North American positions with regard to the connection of faith, politics and

ID.

Secondly, it is not helpful for others to assume that ID or IC proponents in Australia are all cryptoneo-

conservatives. There has already been some ‘guilt-by-association’ by which certain people and

organisation in Australia have been assumed to be associated with the political right when they have

no such connection. Thomas Aquinas put forward a design argument but it would be wrong to

characterise him as a politically right-wing, theologically fundamentalist and politically neoconservative

North American. Generally, Australian Christians, including evangelicals, are far

more laid-back about religious and political identifications and resemble the European situation

more than the North American.

Thirdly, it must be noted that although there are similarities between Australia and the USA in

terms of educational processes, there are also differences. In the USA ‘democratic’ processes

extend much further than in Australia. They are likely to public votes for people to become chief of

police or a judge or magistrate in a way that we do not do here. Consequently, lobbying for votes

takes place more frequently. This can also affect educational processes. While parental choice is an

important factor in education we are a little further away from direct voting for educational policies.

It is not my intention to enter into a debate about the merits of any particular approach but the

present difference is worth noting and the existing notion in the development of Australian curricula

that for something to be taught as ‘science’ (or ‘art’, business or anything else) that it has to

demonstrate intellectual and academic recognition is appropriate. On the other hand, when it comes

to world-views (as with art, literature, music and ethics) ‘scientific standards’ are not the only

measure of truth.

4. Conclusion

The present debate about ID is an excellent case-study in cultural change. It cannot be resolved

without reference to broad-scale social issues as well as the detailed analysis of philosophical,

scientific and cultural issues.

http://www.evangelicalalliance.org.au/News/Intelligent%20Design%20Detailed.pdf